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Effect of Postemergence Glyphosate Application Timing on Weed Control and Grain Yield in Glyphosate-Resistant Corn: Results of a 2-Yr Multistate Study
- Steven A. Gower, Mark M. Loux, John Cardina, S. Kent Harrison, Paul L. Sprankle, Norman J. Probst, Thomas T. Bauman, Wayne Bugg, W. S. Curran, Randall S. Currie, R. Gordon Harvey, William G. Johnson, James J. Kells, Micheal D. K. Owen, David L. Regehr, Charles H. Slack, Marvin Spaur, Christy L. Sprague, Mark Vangessel, Bryan G. Young
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- Journal:
- Weed Technology / Volume 17 / Issue 4 / December 2003
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 20 January 2017, pp. 821-828
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Field studies were conducted at 35 sites throughout the north-central United States in 1998 and 1999 to determine the effect of postemergence glyphosate application timing on weed control and grain yield in glyphosate-resistant corn. Glyphosate was applied at various timings based on the height of the most dominant weed species. Weed control and corn grain yields were considerably more variable when glyphosate was applied only once. The most effective and consistent season-long annual grass and broadleaf weed control occurred when a single glyphosate application was delayed until weeds were 15 cm or taller. Two glyphosate applications provided more consistent weed control when weeds were 10 cm tall or less and higher corn grain yields when weeds were 5 cm tall or less, compared with a single application. Weed control averaged at least 94 and 97% across all sites in 1998 and 1999, respectively, with two glyphosate applications but was occasionally less than 70% because of late emergence of annual grass and Amaranthus spp. or reduced control of Ipomoea spp. With a single application of glyphosate, corn grain yield was most often reduced when the application was delayed until weeds were 23 cm or taller. Averaged across all sites in 1998 and 1999, corn grain yields from a single glyphosate application at the 5-, 10-, 15-, 23-, and 30-cm timings were 93, 94, 93, 91, and 79% of the weed-free control, respectively. There was a significant effect of herbicide treatment on corn grain yield in 23 of the 35 sites when weed reinfestation was prevented with a second glyphosate application. When weed reinfestation was prevented, corn grain yield at the 5-, 10-, and 15-cm application timings was 101, 97, and 93% of the weed-free control, respectively, averaged across all sites. Results of this study suggested that the optimum timing for initial glyphosate application to avoid corn grain yield loss was when weeds were less than 10 cm in height, no more than 23 d after corn planting, and when corn growth was not more advanced than the V4 stage.
Reply to Webster and Osborne
- Rachel R. Bailey, Dianna R. Stuckey, Bryan A. Norman, Andrew P. Duggan, Kristina M. Bacon, Diana L. Connor, Ingi Lee, Robert R. Muder, Bruce Y. Lee
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- Journal:
- Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology / Volume 32 / Issue 10 / October 2011
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 January 2015, pp. 1047-1048
- Print publication:
- October 2011
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Economic Value of Dispensing Home-Based Preoperative Chlorhexidine Bathing Cloths to Prevent Surgical Site Infection
- Rachel R. Bailey, Dianna R. Stuckey, Bryan A. Norman, Andrew P. Duggan, Kristina M. Bacon, Diana L. Connor, Ingi Lee, Robert R. Muder, Bruce Y. Lee
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- Journal:
- Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology / Volume 32 / Issue 5 / May 2011
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 January 2015, pp. 465-471
- Print publication:
- May 2011
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Objective.
To estimate the economic value of dispensing preoperative home-based Chlorhexidine bathing cloth kits to orthopedic patients to prevent surgical site infection (SSI).
Methods.A stochastic decision-analytic computer simulation model was developed from the hospital’s perspective depicting the decision of whether to dispense the kits preoperatively to orthopedic patients. We varied patient age, cloth cost, SSI-attributable excess length of stay, cost per bed-day, patient compliance with the regimen, and cloth antimicrobial efficacy to determine which variables were the most significant drivers of the model’s outcomes.
Results.When all other variables remained at baseline and cloth efficacy was at least 50%, patient compliance only had to be half of baseline (baseline mean, 15.3%; range, 8.23%–20.0%) for Chlorhexidine cloths to remain the dominant strategy (ie, less costly and providing better health outcomes). When cloth efficacy fell to 10%, 1.5 times the baseline bathing compliance also afforded dominance of the preoperative bath.
Conclusions.The results of our study favor the routine distribution of bathing kits. Even with low patient compliance and cloth efficacy values, distribution of bathing kits is an economically beneficial strategy for the prevention of SSI.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. 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Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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6 - The agrarian structures of Latin America, 1930–1990
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- By Norman Long, Professor of Sociology, Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands, Bryan Roberts, C. B. Smith Professor of U.S.-Mexico Relations, University of Texas at Austin
- Leslie Bethell, University of Oxford
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- Latin America
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- 07 September 2010
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- 13 April 1998, pp 313-378
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Summary
The period from the 1930s to the 1980s was marked by far-reaching changes in agrarian structures throughout Latin America. Indeed, it could be argued that the magnitude of change was greater during this half century than in the preceding four centuries. Agricultural production increased dramatically but, by 1990, in almost all Latin American countries, agriculture had become a less important contributor to the gross national product than industry. The social and political significance of agriculture altered sharply. In the 1930s most people in Latin America made their living from the land. Land ownership was still the key to political and economic power at the regional and national level. Many presidents and key political figures were members of the landed elite. By the 1980s those working directly in agriculture were only a quarter of the total labour force. Urban interests and occupations based on industry and services (which included a wide range of financial and administrative services) had become politically dominant.
Crucial changes in the process of agricultural production accompanied this shift in the economic, political and social significance of agriculture and landholding. In the 1930s agricultural production, though usually market-orientated, was largely decentralized. Cropping practices and the organization of agricultural inputs varied from region to region, depending upon ecology, the availability of labour and the nature of the market. This had given rise to a diversity of agrarian structures that generated distinctive regional identities. By the early 1980s agricultural production had become increasingly centralized through the state or large-scale agribusinesses, usually linked to international marketing and financial institutions.
6 - Agrarian structures
- from VII - LATIN AMERICA: ECONOMY, SOCIETY, POLITICS, 1930 to c. 1990
- Edited by Leslie Bethell, University of Oxford
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- The Cambridge History of Latin America
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- 28 March 2008
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- 30 June 1995, pp 556-568
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Summary
There are few detailed historical studies of changes in the agrarian structure in the period. There are exceptions, but these are case studies of local-level processes. One of these exceptions in Luis González, Pueblo en Vilo: Microhistoria de San José de Gracia (Mexico, D.F., 1972); Eng. trans., San José de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition (Austin, Tex., 1974), a careful reconstruction of social and economic change in the Mexican historian’s home town, which is the centre of a mainly ranching economy in the west of Mexico. A useful historical account, written by an anthropologist, again for Mexico and for a ranching economy, is Frans Schryer, The Rancheros of Pisaflores: The History of a Petty Bourgeoisie in Twentieth Century Mexico (Toronto, 1980), which traces political and social change up to the late 1970s. Gavin Smith’s Livelihood and Resistance: Peasants and the Politics of Land in Peru (Berkeley, 1989) is also written by an anthropologist, and provides a detailed historical study of the struggles of one community for land from 1850 to the mid-1970s, showing how changes in livelihood affected political action and consciousness. For Brazil, Verena Stolcke’s Coffee Planters, Workers and Wives (New York, 1988) gives a history of the labour system on the São Paulo coffee plantations from 1850 to 1980 as it passed from slavery to forms of share-cropping to casual wage labour.
6 - The agrarian structures of Latin America, 1930–1990
- from PART THREE - ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
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- By Norman Long, Sociology, University of Bath, Bryan Roberts, University of Texas at Austin
- Edited by Leslie Bethell, University of Oxford
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- The Cambridge History of Latin America
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- 28 March 2008
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- 27 January 1995, pp 325-390
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Summary
The period from the 1930s to the 1980s was marked by far-reaching changes in agrarian structures throughout Latin America. Indeed, it could be argued that the magnitude of change was greater during this half century than in the preceding four centuries. Agricultural production increased dramatically but, by 1990, in almost all Latin American countries, agriculture had become a less important contributor to the gross national product than industry. The social and political significance of agriculture altered sharply. In the 1930s most people in Latin America made their living from the land. Land ownership was still the key to political and economic power at the regional and national level. Many presidents and key political figures were members of the landed elite. By the 1980s those working directly in agriculture were only a quarter of the total labour force. Urban interests and occupations based on industry and services (which included a wide range of financial and administrative services) had become politically dominant.
Crucial changes in the process of agricultural production accompanied this shift in the economic, political and social significance of agriculture and landholding. In the 1930s agricultural production, though usually market-orientated, was largely decentralized. Cropping practices and the organization of agricultural inputs varied from region to region, depending upon ecology, the availability of labour and the nature of the market. This had given rise to a diversity of agrarian structures that generated distinctive regional identities. By the early 1980s agricultural production had become increasingly centralized through the state or large-scale agribusinesses, usually linked to international marketing and financial institutions.
Preface
- Norman Long, Bryan Roberts
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- Miners, Peasants and Entrepreneurs
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- 07 May 2010
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- 14 June 1984, pp ix-x
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Summary
This volume is the second of two that bring together the main findings of field research carried out in the central highlands of Peru between August 1970 and December 1972. The project was financed by a British Social Science Research Council (SSRC) grant made to Norman Long and Bryan Roberts of the University of Manchester. Its aim was to undertake a regional study of social change and development in an economically diversified area of highland Peru.
We were joined in the project by two contributors to this volume, Julian Lake and Gavin Alderson-Smith, both of whom were independently financed, the former by the SSRC and the latter by the Canada Council. Subsequently, Norman Long continued with his research in the central highlands and, in 1980, was awarded, together with Jorge Dandier, a further SSRC grant to extend the themes of the original project to include the Peruvian Department of Huancavelica and the Cochabamba region of Bolivia. Some of the preliminary findings of the latter research have been incorporated into the present volume, allowing us to update the material of the early 1970s.
Throughout the earlier research we were ably assisted by Teófilo Altamirano who, following his appointment to the Pontificia Universidad Católica in Lima, continued with work in the central highlands but broadened it to cover regional associations in Lima, the results of which are reported in this volume. The research effort was also aided by two Chilean anthropologists, Pilar Campafia and Rigoberto Rivera, whose investigations among highland puna communities are likewise contained in this book. They were based at the Universidad Catolica and later studied with Norman Long and Jorge Dandier at the University of Durham.
Frontmatter
- Norman Long, Bryan Roberts
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- Miners, Peasants and Entrepreneurs
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3 - The Mining Corporation and regional development
- Norman Long, Bryan Roberts
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- Miners, Peasants and Entrepreneurs
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- 07 May 2010
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- 14 June 1984, pp 44-69
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Summary
From the early twentieth century, the central highlands became an integral part of Peru's expanding export economy, being the principal location of the mining industry and an important contributor to the development of wool production and, through the supply of seasonal labour, to the operation of the coastal cotton estates. The impact of the export sector on the economy of the central highlands was, as we shall show, substantial both in terms of the wages spent locally and in terms of the linkages that developed between the export sector, agriculture, commerce, transport and local manufacturing industry. These linkages did not result, however, in a significant regional accumulation of capital in agriculture and industry. Such an accumulation, in terms of industrial plant and infrastructure, of the consolidation and modernization of farms and of the linkages between these sectors, could have provided the basis for a pattern of self-sustained regional development. Why such a development failed to materialize is the focus of this chapter.
At the beginning of the twentieth century the central highlands region had the resources needed for growth. The largest deposits of silver, copper, lead, zinc and coal known in Peru were located in the Department of Junín. Timber was available from the tropical lowlands, while there was extensive arable and livestock farming in the valleys and surrounding puna. Junín was, at this time, the single most important national source of barley, potatoes and wheat and, after Puno, was one of the major national centres of wool production.
List of tables
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Miners, Peasants and Entrepreneurs
- Regional Development in the Central Highlands of Peru
- Norman Long, Bryan Roberts
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This volume traces the development of the central highlands, one of Peru's major mining regions. It draws on extensive fieldwork carried out in Peru between 1970 and 1982, spanning a reforming military government, reaction and a return to civilian politics under Belaunde. Through historical material combined with field studies of villages and of the major town of the region, Huancayo, the book examines the economic and cultural processes underlying the 'progressive' reputation of the region in Peru and in the literature on development. Since the major enterprise of the region, the Cerro de Pasco Mining Corporation, was, until the 1970s, foreign owned, a persisting theme is the type of economic growth associated with and the distortions produced by, foreign capitalist economic enclaves on predominantly peasant economies. The political consequences are examined, showing the weakness of regional interest groups and the failure of contemporary regional development policies.
Contents
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8 - The village economy, agricultural development and contemporary patterns of social differentiation
- Norman Long, Bryan Roberts
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Summary
Decline in the economic significance of the mining sector has not been compensated by the development of agriculture. Despite increasing urban concentration, the rural population has continued to grow, increasing pressure on existing land resources. Using the census definition of'rural’ locations (less than 5,000), there has been an increase in the rural population of Junin in the intercensal years from 1961 to 1972 from 265,458 to 281,890. And by 1980, it was estimated that this rural population had increased to 349,176. (Indicadores estadtsticos, 1981: Tables 27, 28). Urban growth was more rapid, but many of these ‘urban’ places were large villages in which a majority of the population still farmed as their major economic activity. The average landholding in 1972 was 2.4 hectares, but this figure concealed significant inequalities in the distribution of land with 38 per cent of farms in the Mantaro valley zone possessing less than half a hectare (Long and Roberts, 1978: 11). The agrarian reform office estimated that the amount of land needed for basic household subsistence was three hectares; yet about half the households in Junin had less than this minimum holding (Huancayo Plan Director, 1976: 36).
Increased demographic pressure was not accompanied by an increase in agricultural production. Agricultural statistics show no evidence of significant improvements between the 1950s and the 1970s, either in levels of production or in productivity of the four main food crops: potatoes, maize, wheat and barley. In the highlands of Junin, the total amount of cultivated land had probably reached its limits by the 1970s and the major new sources of cultivated land were located in the tropical lowlands.
1 - Regional development in an export economy
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Introduction
This book explores a controversial issue in the analysis of development – whether integration into the international capitalist economy entails relative stagnation for underdeveloped economies or the possibility of sustained economic growth and diversification. We focus upon one provincial region of Peru – the central highlands – whose economic and social structure has been shaped by involvement in the international economy from the latter half of the sixteenth century and which, in recent years, has become peripheral to the more dynamic growth pole of Lima.
Our conclusion is that significant growth and diversification has taken place in the region and that this is directly attributable to capitalist expansion. Throughout our analysis we emphasize the social and political dimensions of this process since the local dynamic of capitalism has involved important changes in class relationships consequent upon the emergence of a wage labour force and new entrepreneurial groupings
This conclusion is particularly significant since the economy of the central highlands has been closely linked in this century to the fortunes of large-scale, foreign-owned mining enterprise. At first sight, the mining complex had the characteristics of an economic enclave with few dynamic linkages with the area's economy. This is precisely the situation that is supposed to prevent economic growth at the periphery. However, we will seek to show that such an interpretation fails to take account of the significant but small-scale processes of accumulation resulting from the exchanges between the enclave and a peasant population which, for centuries, had been involved in labour and commodity markets.
Index
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2 - The development of a regional economy in the central highlands
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Summary
In this chapter, we outline the major social and economic processes that created a regional system in the central highlands. Our main interest will be to examine the linkages that developed between the mines and the agrarian sector during the colonial period and into the nineteenth century. An important part of this process was the strengthening of village institutions and the consolidation of small-scale economic enterprise in trade and agriculture. The expansion of local economic enterprise prior to the twentieth century and the class interests to which this gave rise show some important continuities with the effects of large-scale modern mining which we analyse in the next chapter.
The colonial economy of the central highlands
Almost from the beginning of Spanish colonial rule, mining shaped the social and economic organization of the central highlands. From the seventeenth century, the Cerro de Pasco area developed as an important producer of silver and fry the late eighteenth century it was the major South American source, replacing Potosí (Fisher, n.d.: 21). In addition, the Santa Barbara mine at Huancavelica, to the immediate south of the area, was the primary American source of mercury, which was essential to the amalgamation process of silver extraction. The central highlands and especially the Mantaro valley provided labour, fodder, foodstuffs and timber for these mining complexes.
The relationship between mining and agriculture in the Peruvian Andes developed differently from the system of production that Palerm (1976) describes for colonial Mexico. The Mexican system was essentially based on large-scale mining enterprises which were serviced by haciendas, often owned by the mine owners, which in turn depended on the skills, labour and land reserves of the Indian communities.
11 - Regional development in peripheral economies
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In this chapter, we aim to place the foregoing accounts within a broader framework of analysis by exploring the usefulness of a regional focus for understanding processes of development in Latin America. In particular, we examine how far the central highlands region has retained its identity and economic vitality in the face of the continuing centralization of the Peruvian economy.
In chapter one, we argued for adopting a production rather than a marketing and exchange approach to regional analysis. From the case materials presented it should now be clear why we chose to do so. The business class of the city of Huancayo did not depend significantly in any historical period upon its ability to control local markets. Its members made little attempt, for example, to monopolize trade in agricultural or craft products. Rather, their main source of wealth derived from the services they provided the mining economy, their investments in enterprises and, to a lesser extent, their monopolies on the sale of imported manufactures. A similar process occurred at village level, since the main source of capital for local entrepreneurship was savings from work in the mining or plantation economy.
Consequently, the development of a periodic market system in the area cannot be interpreted simply as the outcome of widespread and locally based commercial development and a resulting increase in intra-regional specialization. This market system was consolidated in the 1920s and 1930s, with itinerant traders circulating between markets held in different places on different days of the week (Arguedas, 1957).
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Titles in the series
- Norman Long, Bryan Roberts
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